Curio Cabinet / Nerdy Curio

These mountains look cool, but they can be real hotheads. Researchers from the University of Wisconsin–Madison have presented a study at the Goldschmidt Conference in Prague suggesting that dormant volcanoes around the world may become more active as a result of melting glaciers. First, some clarification: there are three main volcano classifications depending on their level of activity. “Active” means that the volcano has erupted during the Holocene epoch (the last 11,650 years or so) and has the potential to erupt again in the future. “Extinct” means that, as far as anyone can tell, the volcano is unlikely to ever erupt again (though it happens from time to time). “Dormant”, on the other hand, means “potentially active,” as in, it’s an active volcano (the first classification) that’s just not erupting presently, as opposed to “actively erupting,” which means magma is currently coming out of the ground.
 
A lot of factors contribute to a volcano’s dormancy, and scientists have found that glaciers are one of them. Researchers tracked volcanic activity by measuring the radioactive decay of argon in crystals formed in magmatic rock. They then compared that to the level of ice cover during the peak of the last ice age. What the data seems to suggest is that the ice cover acted as a lid, inhibiting eruptions. As the ice melted, volcanoes became more active. Currently, there are an estimated 245 dormant volcanoes buried under three miles of ice, and many of them are in Antarctica. Once these begin to erupt due to the reduction in ice cover, it may create a feedback loop as the eruptions themselves further melt the ice. It seems there will be an icy reception before things really heat up.

 
[Image description: A portion of the Andes mountain range between Chile and Argentina, photographed from far above.] Credit & copyright: Jorge Morales Piderit, Wikimedia Commons. The copyright holder of this work has released it into the public domain. This applies worldwide.
 

These critters are as American as apple pie, but a whole lot bigger! North American bison, also called buffalo, are the largest land animals in North America and some of the most historically significant. Yet, we almost lost them altogether. Overhunted throughout the 19th century, there were fewer than 600 bison left in the U.S. by 1889. Today, their numbers have recovered drastically, but these gentle giants still have a long way to go.
 
There are two species of bison: The North American bison and the European bison. North American bison are often called buffalo, but they aren’t actually buffalo at all. Real buffalo, like cape buffalo and anoa, live in Africa and Asia. However, bison are closely related to buffalo and share many traits with them, since they’re all bovines—members of the family Bovidae’s subfamily, Bovinae. As such, they share many attributes with buffalo, including their large size, horns, and hooves, as well as behavioral traits like living in herds. Bison are famous for their fluffy winter coats, which help them survive harsh, blizzardy winters in places like the Northern Great Plains. That’s not to say that bison are sweet and cuddly, though. They are massive, powerful animals; males can stand up to six feet tall and weigh up to 2,000 pounds. Like any wild animal, they can become aggressive if approached, especially during mating and calving season. It’s a fact that tourists sometimes learn the hard way when they don’t obey rules in places like Yellowstone National Park, where the largest bison population in North America roams free.
 
Bison first appeared in North America during the late Middle Pleistocene epoch, between 195,000 and 135,000 years ago. Before European colonists began settling in North America en masse in the late 15th century, there were around 30 million bison roaming in what is now the United States. Many native tribes relied on bison meat and hides, with some, like the Plains Indians, focusing many parts of their lives around the movements of bison herds. However, as colonist aggression toward native tribes increased and native peoples lost control of more and more land, the bison population dwindled. During the American Indian Wars of the 17th, 18th, and early 19th centuries, bison were deliberately killed by colonists as a means of harming native peoples and to feed colonial soldiers. By the 1880s, there were as few as 300 bison left in what is now the United States. The species was on the brink of extinction.
 
Luckily, private organizations and ranchers stepped in to save North American buffalo, keeping herds on private land where they couldn’t be hunted. In 1902, 21 bison from private owners were placed in a designated area at Yellowstone National Park. Eventually, they were reintroduced to the wild, and began breeding with Yellowstone’s existing wild population. In 1905, the American Bison Society started a bison breeding program that also helped spread awareness about the importance of wild bison. Theodore Roosevelt aligned himself closely with the organization and even served as its honorary president for a time. Today, thanks to over a century of conservation efforts, there are roughly 31,000 wild bison in the United States. It’s a far cry from the millions that once roamed here, but it’s a whole lot better than extinction, and that’s no bison hockey!

 
[Image description: An adult and baby bison standing on a shrubby plain.] Credit & copyright: Anna Weyers Blades/USFWS. Public Domain.

Getting rid of plastic is a pain, but what if it was a painkiller? According to a paper published in Nature Chemistry, scientists at the University of Edinburgh in the U.K. have genetically engineered a strain of E. coli that is capable of breaking down plastic and turning it into acetaminophen. It sounds outlandish, but it’s not as crazy as it seems. The E. coli in question isn’t the same type that makes people ill. This strain is capable of carrying out a chemical reaction called a Lossen rearrangement. It’s a phenomenon that has never been observed in nature before, and until now was only seen in harsh laboratory conditions previously thought to be incompatible with life. Yet, when chemists added polyethylene terephthalate (PET), a type of plastic commonly used in food packaging, into a culture of their specially-engineered E. coli, the bacteria used a Lossen rearrangement to turn plastic molecules into acetaminophen.
 
Also known as paracetamol, Acetaminophen is an over-the-counter painkiller that most people have taken at some point, though they might not know that it, too, is a petroleum derivative. Just as it takes a lengthy process to turn crude oil into helpful pills, researchers had to take several steps to get their E coli to produce something useful. First, they took E. coli that could turn PET into para-aminobenzoic acid (PABA), and added genes from mushrooms and soil bacteria that could turn PABA into acetaminophen. The result was a strain of E. coli that could create acetaminophen from PET in less than 24 hours. That’s one headache solved!

 
[Image description: Plastic bottles and other plastic trash in a yellow waste bin.] Credit & copyright: Hyena, Wikimedia Commons. This work has been released into the public domain by its author, Hyena. This applies worldwide.

Who would have ever thought that the prey would have something to thank the predators for? Researchers at Wageningen University & Research in the Netherlands have published a paper in Science Advances showing how predators drive the evolution of their prey. The experiment involved guppies, chosen for their quick reproduction cycles, living in an enclosed environment. Researchers selectively introduced and removed predators from the controlled environment and observed how the guppies adapted. As expected, the presence of predators influenced the natural selection within the guppy population, but to a surprising degree. Within just three generations, the guppies responded by changing both their rate of reproduction and their body size. More specifically, the female guppies began reproducing earlier in life and produced more offspring. Meanwhile, the males’ bodies changed to improve their agility with shorter tails and smaller reproductive organs. Overall, the guppies grew smaller with each generation. The experiment influenced the evolution of the guppies purely with predation pressure, meaning that there was no sexual selection taking place at all. In the wild, female guppies are more likely to breed with colorful males, but such features were not affected during the experiment. The researchers were therefore able to determine exactly which physical features evolved due to predation pressure, and which ones were the result of other factors. While we already knew that predation is a major driver of evolution, this experiment surprised researchers by showing just how quickly it can cause change. Those are some speedy guppies.

[Image description: A colorful guppy fish against green aquatic plants.] Credit & copyright: 5snake5, Wikimedia Commons. This file is made available under the Creative Commons CC0 1.0 Universal Public Domain Dedication.
 

These humped heroes sure know how to beat the heat. As a heat dome scorches much of the U.S. this week, it’s a good time to learn about an animal who wouldn’t mind these temperatures at all. Camels are Earth’s largest desert-dwelling animals. While most desert animals evolved to be small so that they could escape the scorching heat by burrowing or seeking out slivers of shade, camels took a different approach. They evolved large, portable energy-conservation tanks in the form of humps.
 
Contrary to childhood legends, camels’ humps don’t actually contain water. Rather, they’re full of fat, from which their bodies draw energy throughout long treks in the heat. This allows them to eat and drink very little while on the move. In fact, camels can survive around a week without water and several months without food, even while walking up to 20 miles a day in scorching temperatures.
 
Camels are part of a group of animals called ungulates, most of which are hooved. Camels, however, have soft foot pads with two large, hard toenails. Though there are seven species in the family Camelidae, only three are commonly called camels: the dromedary camel, Bactrian camel, and wild Bactrian camel. Dromedaries have just one hump while bactrains have two, but that’s not the most important difference between them. Dromedaries are a completely domesticated species, while some bactrian camels still remain in the wild, living mostly in northwestern China and the Gobi Desert in southwest Mongolia. While bactrains are critically endangered, dromedaries are fairly common, making up about 94 percent of Earth’s camel population.
 
So, why domesticate camels? For people living near deserts, it makes perfect sense. Dromedary camels can comfortably carry up to 330 pounds over long distances, and even more during short trips. Humans can comfortably ride them, which makes them invaluable for crossing areas where roads are scarce. Camels can also be used for milk and even meat, making them one of the most versatile domesticated animals around. That’s not to say that all dromedaries live a sheltered life. Central Australia is home to a sizable population of feral dromedaries, whose ancestors were brought to Australia by 19th century European settlers. As an invasive species, they’ve caused some harm to local wildlife by eating native plants and drinking valuable water that native animals need to survive. A hunting program allows for a certain number of these feral camels to be killed each year, but their population remains fairly large. Some dromedaries are just determined to walk on the wild side.

 
[Image description: A dromedary camel walking on a road beside a wooden fence and green trees.] Credit & copyright: A1000, Wikimedia Commons. This file is made available under the Creative Commons CC0 1.0 Universal Public Domain Dedication.

It seems they’re turning red meat into read meat. According to a paper published in Scientific Reports, scientists at São Paulo State University (UNESP) have identified genetic markers that are associated with higher quality meat in cows. Current, conventional practices can only do so much when it comes to producing quality beef. At the end of the day, and all else being equal, livestock producers rely on the breed of cattle to do the heavy lifting. Even then, quality can be inconsistent between individuals thanks to phenotypic variability. But the researchers at UNESP appear to have cracked the code while working with Nelore cattle, a breed of zebu which make up around 80 percent of the cattle raised for meat in Brazil. By collecting samples from 6,910 Nelore carcasses after slaughter and grading, they managed to identify specific markers that are responsible for marbling (the amount of intramuscular fat), subcutaneous fat thickness, and muscle development. One particularly interesting discovery involved a gene responsible for heat shock proteins, which can influence meat tenderness by affecting fiber degradation after slaughter. The tenderness of meat can vary greatly between individuals depending on how much the gene is expressed. While similar efforts have been made before, including by the researchers at UNESP, this study was uniquely able to produce results by taking a more comprehensive look at the biology of individual animals. As the first author of the study, Gabriela Frezarim, explained, "The group had already made significant progress using different 'omics' [genomics, transcriptomics, and proteomics] approaches, but it became increasingly clear that no single technique is sufficient to understand the complexity of the biological systems that control variation in meat and carcass quality.” It’s like herding scientific disciplines together.

[Image description: A brown-and-black zebu cow walking on grass.] Credit & copyright: Mammalwatcher, Wikimedia Commons. This file is made available under the Creative Commons CC0 1.0 Universal Public Domain Dedication.
 

Make way for the only bugs that can be mistaken for stars. When fireflies light up the summer sky, it’s at least as impressive as a celestial lightshow. However, it seems that fewer fireflies (or lightning bugs, as they’re sometimes called) are showing up each year. Luckily, there are things that everyday people can do to help dwindling firefly populations.
 
Fireflies are soft-bodied beetles in the family Lampyridae. Although there are thousands of firefly species (around 2,400) the most common species in the U.S. is Photinus pyralis. These small beetles grow to be around .7 inches and feature bright orange heads atop black bodies. At the end of their abdomen is a whitish-yellow area from which the fireflies emit light. This is the firefly’s lantern, an organ in which the insect’s famous light-emitting chemical reaction takes place. The reaction relies on an energy-carrying molecule called adenosine triphosphate (ATP) which helps a chemical compound called luciferin create light when it reacts with oxygen and the enzyme luciferase.
 
Contrary to popular belief, both male and female fireflies light up, but only the males of the Photinus pyralis species do so while flying. In fact, the males’ characteristic flight patterns, in which they swoop low to the ground then light up as they fly upwards, have earned them the nickname “big dipper fireflies.” Meanwhile, females land on tree trunks or other vegetation and signal to males if they’re ready to mate.
 
Bioluminescent animals, which emit light via biological processes, are common in the ocean, but they’re fairly rare on land. Fireflies are by far the most frequently-encountered bioluminescent animals in the U.S., which has naturally made them beloved. Unfortunately, 18 species are now considered endangered in North America. While Photinus pyralis isn’t yet considered threatened, anecdotal reports seem to show that fewer of them are being seen year by year. Climate change plays a role, but much of the trouble also has to do with general human development, especially light pollution. While U.S. neighborhoods (where people commonly saw fireflies) used to be dark at night, the advent of energy-efficient streetlights and the popularity of solar-powered garden lights have left fireflies without enough darkness to put on a proper display. Like all beetles, fireflies go through a larval stage as part of their development. Firefly larvae are wingless, which leaves them more vulnerable to household herbicides and pesticides. Fireflies lay their eggs in leaf litter, which is often bagged up and thrown out in yards, dooming the eggs.
 
The good news is that there’s plenty we can do to usher fireflies back to U.S. neighborhoods. Reducing light pollution can be accomplished by simply ceasing to use garden lights and turning other lights off at night. Using fewer pesticides and leaving leaves alone in the fall are other, easy ways to help fireflies. Hey, less yardwork sounds pretty enlightened to us.

 
[Image description: A firefly on a green leaf.] Credit & copyright: Bruce Hallman/USFWS. Public Domain Mark 1.0 Universal.

They may be small, but they’re a big deal. Scientists at the Rosenstiel School of Marine, Atmospheric, and Earth Science have published a study in the journal Nature npj Viruses, detailing a slew of newly-discovered giant viruses that shape ocean life. While the ocean is vast and home to some of Earth’s largest creatures, the base of the food web still consists of its smallest denizens, including algae, amoeba, and flagellates (microscopic organisms defined by their single, whip-like tail that is used for movement). These organisms are greatly affected by giant viruses, which, as their name implies, are much larger than most viruses, with some even being larger than bacteria. Such viruses can cause havoc in the delicate balance of the ocean’s food web. Among other things, they can cause algal blooms, which can be directly harmful to animal and human health.
 
As significant as their ecological role is, giant viruses were poorly understood until recently, and little was known about their genome. To learn more, the researchers pored over existing marine metagenomic datasets and were able to identify 230 novel giant viruses, along with 530 new proteins. Some of these proteins were found to be linked to the viruses’ ability to manipulate the process of photosynthesis in their hosts, possibly explaining how they lead to algal blooms. In fact, figuring out how to deal with algal blooms was one of the motivations for the research. One of the study’s co-authors, Mohammad Moniruzzaman, explained, "By better understanding the diversity and role of giant viruses in the ocean and how they interact with algae and other ocean microbes, we can predict and possibly manage harmful algal blooms, which are human health hazards in Florida as well as all over the world.” Even some of Earth’s biggest problems are caused by small things.

[Image description: A digital illustration of green viruses against a blue background.] Credit & copyright: Author-created illustration. Public Domain.
 

These wild equines have got a bit of a mean streak, plus a whole lot of stripes! The rescue of an escaped pet zebra in Tennessee has recently gone viral after the animal was airlifted to safety, but very few people will ever own a zebra. That might seem odd, given that their close cousins, horses, are some of humanity’s most prized domesticated animals. There are plenty of good reasons why zebras have never been domesticated, though, and why you’ll (hopefully) never see a person riding one.
 
Zebras are part of the genus Equus, along with horses and wild asses. These three groups represent the only living members of the family Equidae, and zebras are the only ones that have never been domesticated by humans. There are three species of zebras, and all of them live in grasslands, shrublands, and savannahs across eastern and southern Africa. There, they live in herds of up to 20 individuals, eating grasses and small, shrubby plants. Their beautiful black-and-white stripes make them stand out to human eyes, but they also break up their individual silhouettes, so that predators have a harder time pinpointing a single zebra. That’s important, since zebras have to survive amongst some of the most fearsome predators on the planet, including lions, hyenas, crocodiles, and wild dogs, among others. When confronted by predators, zebras will group close together to deter them. When that isn’t enough, however, zebras can and will fight, lashing out with powerful kicks and bites.
 
Unfortunately for humans, the behavioral adaptations that make zebras so perfectly suited for their African home are exactly the ones that make them impossible to domesticate. Zebras are aggressive enough to fend off lions, so would-be-zebra-riders don’t stand much of a chance. Zebras have a strong “ducking” instinct, which helps them protect their throats from predators in the wild. In a domesticated setting, it means that zebras are all but impossible to lasso or leash, and that they struggle against bridles. Zebras also don’t have a hierarchical herd structure, like wild horses do. This means that there are no leaders in wild zebra herds, which would make it pretty difficult for a zebra to accept a human as its leader. All in all, while zebras might look a bit like horses, they’re really a different stripe of creature entirely.

 
[Image description: A zebra walking through grass and brush.] Credit & copyright: Alvinategyeka, Wikimedia Commons. This file is made available under the Creative Commons CC0 1.0 Universal Public Domain Dedication.

These flies are about to get buzzed…for the greater good. According to a paper published in The Journal of Neuroscience, researchers at the University of Utah have genetically modified fruit flies so that they can become addicted to cocaine. It sounds shocking, but there's a good reason for it: the researchers are trying to figure out which genes are most responsible for addiction risk in humans. These genetically-modified flies will be exposed to cocaine and given the ability to self-administer, and the researchers hope to use the model of addiction disorder in fruit flies to uncover the biological foundations behind addiction in general. Getting flies to accept cocaine, however, was no mean feat. Insects like flies are naturally averse to cocaine since it is a plant toxin, and flies detect toxins through taste receptors on their legs. Researchers had to find a way to disable those receptors so that they would accept sugarwater laced with cocaine instead of flying away. Once that hurdle was overcome, the flies took readily to the narcotic, and they reacted in much the same way humans do. As lead author Adrian Rothenfluh confirmed, "At low doses, they start running around, just like people. At very high doses, they get incapacitated, which is also true in people." While the method sounds a little odd, the research might prove invaluable to the millions of people who suffer from addiction. Cocaine is considered highly addictive, with 15 percent of those who try it becoming addicted within 10 years. If only human beings could be so naturally averse to what hurts them!

[Image description: A fruit fly with red eyes under a microscope.] Credit & copyright: Asmawati24, Wikimedia Commons. This file is made available under the Creative Commons CC0 1.0 Universal Public Domain Dedication.
 

What is that extremely angry peeping noise? If you’re in the desert, it might just be the last creature you’d expect to see: a frog. Rain frogs, so named because they’re most active when it rains, can survive in some of the harshest environments on Earth, despite their small size and the fact that they’re amphibians, which normally require constant access to water. These little frogs have also become famous online for their angry-looking faces and adorable squeaking.
 
There are more than 200 species of rain frogs, the most famous of which is the desert rain frog, native to Namibia and South Africa. Not only do these frogs live in a much different environment than most frogs, they also look very different. Rain frogs lack the powerful back legs and large feet that allow most other frogs to jump. Their legs are small and thin, while their bodies are large and round, which makes their movements slow and somewhat awkward. They’re small, with a maximum length of just six inches. Their skin, which is smooth and delicate, secretes a sticky substance that causes sand to stick all over their bodies. This sandy coating not only camouflages the frogs, it also helps protect them from the harsh sun.
 
Of course, desert rain frogs prefer not to go out in the sun at all. They're most active during periods of heavy rain, which are few and far between in the desert. When it isn’t raining, desert rain frogs prefer to stay in their burrows, which can reach as deep as eight inches under the sand. When they must leave their burrows during dry times, they prefer to do so at night. Their nocturnal lifestyle helps ensure that their smooth skin isn’t damaged by the intense desert sun. Under the cover of darkness, it’s safer for the frogs to hunt for termites, their most important food source. With their large mouths, desert rain frogs will also scoop up any other insects that wander their way, including beetles and grubs.
 
As for their famous squeaking, as cute as it may seem to us, the frog’s call is actually a war cry of sorts. The squeaking can intimidate predators like snakes or birds of prey. It can also be used to alert other rain frogs to their location. While desert rain frogs are normally solitary, during mating season, male rain frogs squeak loudly to attract females. Imagine a world where an adorable squeak was the height of masculinity.

 
[Image description: A rain frog with brown stripes standing tall with its front raised off the ground.] Credit & copyright: Marius Burger, Wikimedia Commons. This file is made available under the Creative Commons CC0 1.0 Universal Public Domain Dedication.

Hey, put that baby down! Monkeys have long had a reputation for being mischievous, but one group of capuchin monkeys living on a small Panamanian island have taken things to a new level. Researchers recently reviewed footage of capuchin monkeys on Jicarón Island taken between 2022 and 2023 and saw that several males were carrying kidnapped baby howler monkeys on their backs. No one knows why these males would snatch babies from another monkey species, as the behavior has never been observed in capuchin monkeys before. It could have been a classic case of "monkey see, monkey do”, in which one male might have started the “trend”, then other capuchins imitated him.
 
It’s telling that new behaviors are still being developed and observed amongst capuchin monkeys all the time. After all, they, like humans, are primates, a group of animals famous for their intelligence. Though capuchins are fairly small, growing to be just 22 inches long and weighing just nine pounds, they’ve got plenty of brain power. Like most primates, they learn through observation and imitation, meaning that if one monkey figures something out, others in their troop can easily pick it up too. Since troops can contain up to 35 monkeys of different ages, specialized behaviors can develop and be passed down in different groups, leading to a wide range of behaviors specific to certain areas.
 
All five species of capuchin monkeys are native to the tropical rainforests of Central and South America, and they got their name from a strange source. When European explorers first saw the monkeys, with their white faces surrounded by blonde or brown fur, they were reminded of the brown robes of Roman monks, specifically the Order of Friars Minor Capuchin, and the name stuck. Unlike monks, though, capuchin monkeys spend most of their time in the treetops, foraging through the canopy for food. Their prehensile tails help keep them grounded as they reach for fruit, or snatch lizards and other small animals from branches. As omnivores, capuchins will eat just about anything that they can fit in their mouths, though they don’t tend to scavenge on carrion the way that omnivores like bears do.
 
Like most primates, capuchins live in groups composed of a few unrelated, adult males and closely related females and their babies. At around seven years of age, male capuchins leave their birth troops to join other troops or start their own. Living in large groups makes it easy for monkeys to take turns caring for babies and keep one step ahead of predators like jaguars, large snakes, and birds of prey, since lookouts can sound an alarm if one is spotted. In an environment as dangerous as the rainforest, it pays to stick with family.

 
[Image description: A capuchin monkey reaching for food while sitting on a wooden structure.] Credit & copyright: Christophe Chauvin (Janekvorik), Wikimedia Commons. The copyright holder of this work has released it into the public domain. This applies worldwide.

Oh, how the mighty have fallen! The gas giant Jupiter is the largest planet in the solar system, but a new study published in Nature Astronomy by researchers at Caltech and the University of Michigan claims that it used to be far larger. Besides being large, Jupiter is also extremely influential. Its tremendous gravitational pull contributed greatly to the orbits of other planets, and it has even acted as a shield against asteroids and comets that might have impacted Earth. Today, Jupiter is as large as 1,000 Earths, but in its early days it was even larger. According to the researchers, Jupiter’s diameter was once twice as large as it currently is, when the solar system was just 3.8 million years old. Its magnetic field was also 50 times stronger than it is today. Researchers were able to determine the original size of the planet in its primordial form by analyzing the orbits of two of its moons, Amalthea and Thebe. These two moons have tilted orbits, and the path they take around Jupiter could have only formed when the planet was larger. Jupiter’s larger size might also mean that the planet played an even greater role in shaping the solar system as the other planets were forming or settling into their orbits. Sometimes it takes a bigger sibling to get the little ones in line.

[Image description: A starry night sky above a line of pine trees.] Credit & copyright: tommy haugsveen, Pexels
 

You might be chill, but are you capybara-level chill? Capybaras are famous for two things: being the world’s largest rodents and having one of the most relaxed dispositions in the entire animal kingdom. Their penchant for getting along with other creatures, from birds to caimens, has made them internet darlings. It’s also helped them survive for millions of years without having to change much.
 
Capybaras are the largest rodents on Earth, standing around two feet tall and four feet long while weighing up to 146 pounds. That’s awfully big considering that most rodents, like mice and squirrels, are some of the world's smallest mammals. No one knows for certain why capybaras evolved to be so huge. It could be that they grew to their current size during a time when food was particularly plentiful in their South American habitat. Or it could simply be genetic luck. Capybaras evolved from a much smaller ancestor around the same size as a guinea pig. A mutation might have caused gigantism to become more common in capybaras, making them grow large. Normally, species with such mutations have higher rates of cancer, but research has shown that capybaras also evolved cancer-resistant genes, even as their main growth hormone, called IGF-II, increased.
 
Whatever caused it, there’s no doubt that capybaras’ large size serves them well. Once capybaras are adults, few animals bother to prey on them (though some, like jaguars and caimans, still occasionally do.) Capybaras are most vulnerable to predation when they’re young, but since capybaras have up to eight babies at a time with a relatively short gestation period of five months, their populations have managed to remain stable. Capybaras are semi-aquatic, spending much of their time swimming and soaking in water. After a good swim, a capybara herd, which can consist of up to 30 capybaras, will lie along a river to dry their fur. They don’t mind much when birds land on their backs or even when predators like caimans come to rest beside them. Part of capybaras’ laid back attitude is due to their slow metabolism. They mostly eat grass, which takes time to break down. This means that they spend much of their energy on digestion and can’t expend too much on anything else. They also don’t have much reason to be wary, due to their size and the fact that their herds help keep them safe. There’s power in numbers, including the power to take it easy.

 
[Image description: Two capybaras in a zoo enclosure, one sitting and one standing.] Credit & copyright: Adrian Pingstone (Arpingstone), Wikimedia Commons. This work has been released into the public domain by its author, Arpingstone. This applies worldwide.

There's something in the air nowadays…or less of something. Researchers at Tianjin University and Peking University have found that mercury levels in the atmosphere have been dropping steadily over the past few decades, according to a study published in ACS ES&T Air. It's difficult to overstate the dangers of mercury, and much of the heavy metal in the atmosphere is anthropogenic, meaning that it originates from mad-made pollution. Whether it's elemental mercury or methylmercury, the latter of which is present in certain types of fish and shellfish, mercury has neurotoxic effects that can range from debilitating to deadly. Fortunately, anthropogenic mercury appears to be on the decline. Researchers pored over data from the past four decades and found that more of the mercury in the atmosphere appears to be from the re-emission of terrestrial mercury in the soil. In the last 20 years, atmospheric mercury levels plummeted by 70 percent, and it might be the result of the Minamata Convention on Mercury, an international treaty that regulates sources of mercury pollution. Much of this data was found by examining Androsace tapete, a plant that grows on Mount Everest and sprouts a new layer of leaves each year. The leaves from each layer contain varying levels of mercury depending on the year. Thus, researchers were able to track the declining presence of the toxin over the decades. It seems that plants are surprisingly good record-keepers.

[Image description: A white cloud against a blue sky.] Credit & copyright: Wikimedia Commons, Dinkum. This file is made available under the Creative Commons CC0 1.0 Universal Public Domain Dedication.
 

These aren’t your everyday kind of possums! While people in North and South America are used to opossums, scavengers roughly the size of cats, much smaller possums rule the roost down under. Australia is home to five species of pygmy possums, the largest of which only reaches about 12 inches in length. Recently, researchers determined that the population of mountain pygmy possums in Australia’s Kosciuszko National Park had returned to average numbers after a period of decline. The tiny marsupials’ population dropped due to a drought in 2017, then again in 2020 due to devastating bushfires. At one point, there were only around 700 of them left in the park, which spans nearly 3,000 square miles. Now, there are around 950. The secret to the possums’ success was active conservation efforts, some of which were led by local schoolchildren in towns bordering the park. The children made “Bodong biscuits” from macadamia nuts, mealworms, and oils to replace the fats that mountain pygmy possums used to get from Bodong mother larvae. The larvae suffered a population decline of their own during the 2017 drought and 2020 fires, and are also recovering.
 
Mountain pygmy possums could easily be mistaken for mice. They weigh just 1.6 ounces and only grow to around 4.3 inches long. However, while mice are rodents, mountain pygmy possums are marsupials, meaning that they carry their young in pouches until they reach adulthood. As their name suggests, mountain pygmy possums live in mountainous terrain, specifically elevated areas in Victoria and New South Wales. It’s a cold, rocky environment with harsh, windy weather. Besides moth larvae, which makes up the majority of their diets, mountain pygmy possums eat other insects as well as small berries and fruits. They’re well adapted to their mountain homes, able to climb and leap with ease while using their prehensile tails to hold on and keep from falling at great heights. Possibly their most important adaptation is their ability to hibernate when the weather gets too cold. This allows them to sleep while food is scarce, and wake up just in time to enjoy the (literal) fruits of spring. Sometimes, it’s better to just wait things out.

 
[Image description: An illustration of two pygmy possums on yellow flowers. The possums are small, gray animals with long, thin tails.] Credit & copyright: John Gould (1804–1881) and Henry Constantine Richter. The Mammals of Australia, London, Printed by Taylor and Francis, pub. by the author,1863. Biodiversity Heritage Library. This work is in the public domain in its country of origin and other countries and areas where the copyright term is the author's life plus 100 years or fewer. This work is in the public domain in the United States because it was published (or registered with the U.S. Copyright Office) before January 1, 1930.

Before gold glittered on Earth, it may have quaked in space. For years, science has posited that light elements, like hydrogen and helium, have existed on Earth since as far back as the Big Bang while heavier elements, like gold and uranium, were probably made elsewhere. That’s because a vast amount of energy is needed to create such heavy elements. These theories have been backed up by modern astronomical evidence of heavy elements being created during stellar events, such as nuclear fusion in the cores of stars. When these stars explode, they shower nearby solar systems with heavy elements. Now, researchers might have found another stellar event with the capacity to create gold: starquakes on a type of neutron star known as magnetars.
 
When stars explode, their cores can become neutron stars, the densest celestial objects in the universe. Magnetars are neutron stars with particularly strong magnetic fields. Since magnetars have fluid cores beneath their crusts, motion under the surface can cause massive starquakes, similar to earthquakes on our own planet. When this happens, magnetars can release bursts of radiation. While re-evaluating 20-year-old data from NASA and European Space Agency telescopes, researchers found evidence that these radiation bursts also cause massive explosions during which some of a magnetar’s mass is ejected into space. These explosions create the necessary conditions for the formation of heavy elements. Is it any wonder that gold shimmers like stars when that’s where it’s originally from?

[Image description: An earring in the shape of a gold star, made in the 8th-12th century.] Credit & copyright: Earring with Star and Granules The Metropolitan Museum of Art, Gift of Jeannette and Jonathan Rosen, 2001., Public Domain.
 

That’s one spiny little bugger! In some places (particularly in Europe) hedgehogs are a common sight, while in other places (like the U.S.A.) they’re considered exotic pets. Regardless of location, hedgehogs are famous for being small, cute, and, of course, spikey. An average European hedgehog has between 5,000 and 7,000 spikes covering its back and sides.
 
Hedgehogs have a wide range that includes parts of Europe, Asia, and Africa. They evolved around 15 million years ago and are still very similar to their ancient ancestors in size and appearance. They’re often mistaken for rodents, but they’re not actually members of the order Rodentia, which includes animals like mice, squirrels, and hamsters. Rather, hedgehogs belong to the order Eulipotyphla, along with animals like shrews and moles. Like their relatives, hedgehogs don’t eat seeds, grains, or fruit; they’re insectivores. Their diets mainly consist of worms, slugs, and beetles, though hedgehogs are opportunistic eaters and will even eat carrion if they happen across it.
Despite their small size and cute appearance, hedgehogs are pretty good at fending off predators thanks to their spikes. When a threat approaches, a hedgehog will roll into a prickly ball while hissing. The display is enough to drive most predators off.
 
Their natural defenses have helped hedgehogs become common in many places, including some where they really shouldn’t be. Hedgehogs were introduced to New Zealand from Europe in 1870, in an attempt to control New Zealand’s slug and snail populations. Unfortunately, hedgehogs are now invasive pests in the island nation, as they gobble up native wildlife and have no natural predators to control their population.
 
African pygmy hedgehogs are particularly popular as pets worldwide, as they typically do well in captivity and can even bond with their owners to a degree. They do have some special needs though. Not only do hedgehog owners need to have strong enough stomachs to feed their pets mealworms and other insects, but African pygmy hedgehogs also require heating lamps. If their body temperature slips below 68 degrees Fahrenheit, they can enter a hibernation-like state called torpor, which can be deadly. When it comes to keeping these prickly pals, not everyone can stand the heat.

 
[Image description: A brown hedgehog walking in green grass.] Credit & copyright: George Chernilevsky, Wikimedia Commons. The copyright holder of this work has released it into the public domain. This applies worldwide.

This week, as the weather continues to warm, we're looking back on some of our favorite springtime curios from years past.
 

Spring is arriving earlier than ever according to the National Park Service (NPS). As pleasant as it sounds, this has broad ramifications—such as the devastating floods in the Midwest this week. NPS ecologists published a study in 2016 that compared long-term shifts in the "first leaf" and first bloom dates of national parks. Of the 276 parks in the study, 75 percent are experiencing earlier and earlier first budding and blooming dates (the locations shown above in green). For example, in Washington's Olympic National Park, leaves are emerging 23 days sooner than they did 100 years ago. The Grand Canyon and the Appalachians are budding earlier as well. But areas in grey, such as the south, have been experiencing delayed signs of spring. Why is this such a big deal? For starters, "false springs" are partially responsible for premature blooming. Waves of unseasonable warmth cause plants to sprout in winter. The plants die when the cold resumes. Meaning that the migratory birds, pollinators, and hibernating mammals who rely on those plants find themselves in dire straits. Also, premature thaws of snowpacks lead to flooding which is not only dangerous but means the water can't be captured properly in reservoirs. So before you get too hopeful that spring will spring early… it might be better to wish for a few more weeks of winter.
 

Image credit & copyright: Jebulon, Wikimedia Commons. This file is made available under the Creative Commons CC0 1.0 Universal Public Domain Dedication.