Curio Cabinet / Nerdy Curio

They may be small, but they’re a big deal. Scientists at the Rosenstiel School of Marine, Atmospheric, and Earth Science have published a study in the journal Nature npj Viruses, detailing a slew of newly-discovered giant viruses that shape ocean life. While the ocean is vast and home to some of Earth’s largest creatures, the base of the food web still consists of its smallest denizens, including algae, amoeba, and flagellates (microscopic organisms defined by their single, whip-like tail that is used for movement). These organisms are greatly affected by giant viruses, which, as their name implies, are much larger than most viruses, with some even being larger than bacteria. Such viruses can cause havoc in the delicate balance of the ocean’s food web. Among other things, they can cause algal blooms, which can be directly harmful to animal and human health.
 
As significant as their ecological role is, giant viruses were poorly understood until recently, and little was known about their genome. To learn more, the researchers pored over existing marine metagenomic datasets and were able to identify 230 novel giant viruses, along with 530 new proteins. Some of these proteins were found to be linked to the viruses’ ability to manipulate the process of photosynthesis in their hosts, possibly explaining how they lead to algal blooms. In fact, figuring out how to deal with algal blooms was one of the motivations for the research. One of the study’s co-authors, Mohammad Moniruzzaman, explained, "By better understanding the diversity and role of giant viruses in the ocean and how they interact with algae and other ocean microbes, we can predict and possibly manage harmful algal blooms, which are human health hazards in Florida as well as all over the world.” Even some of Earth’s biggest problems are caused by small things.

[Image description: A digital illustration of green viruses against a blue background.] Credit & copyright: Author-created illustration. Public Domain.
 

These wild equines have got a bit of a mean streak, plus a whole lot of stripes! The rescue of an escaped pet zebra in Tennessee has recently gone viral after the animal was airlifted to safety, but very few people will ever own a zebra. That might seem odd, given that their close cousins, horses, are some of humanity’s most prized domesticated animals. There are plenty of good reasons why zebras have never been domesticated, though, and why you’ll (hopefully) never see a person riding one.
 
Zebras are part of the genus Equus, along with horses and wild asses. These three groups represent the only living members of the family Equidae, and zebras are the only ones that have never been domesticated by humans. There are three species of zebras, and all of them live in grasslands, shrublands, and savannahs across eastern and southern Africa. There, they live in herds of up to 20 individuals, eating grasses and small, shrubby plants. Their beautiful black-and-white stripes make them stand out to human eyes, but they also break up their individual silhouettes, so that predators have a harder time pinpointing a single zebra. That’s important, since zebras have to survive amongst some of the most fearsome predators on the planet, including lions, hyenas, crocodiles, and wild dogs, among others. When confronted by predators, zebras will group close together to deter them. When that isn’t enough, however, zebras can and will fight, lashing out with powerful kicks and bites.
 
Unfortunately for humans, the behavioral adaptations that make zebras so perfectly suited for their African home are exactly the ones that make them impossible to domesticate. Zebras are aggressive enough to fend off lions, so would-be-zebra-riders don’t stand much of a chance. Zebras have a strong “ducking” instinct, which helps them protect their throats from predators in the wild. In a domesticated setting, it means that zebras are all but impossible to lasso or leash, and that they struggle against bridles. Zebras also don’t have a hierarchical herd structure, like wild horses do. This means that there are no leaders in wild zebra herds, which would make it pretty difficult for a zebra to accept a human as its leader. All in all, while zebras might look a bit like horses, they’re really a different stripe of creature entirely.

 
[Image description: A zebra walking through grass and brush.] Credit & copyright: Alvinategyeka, Wikimedia Commons. This file is made available under the Creative Commons CC0 1.0 Universal Public Domain Dedication.

These flies are about to get buzzed…for the greater good. According to a paper published in The Journal of Neuroscience, researchers at the University of Utah have genetically modified fruit flies so that they can become addicted to cocaine. It sounds shocking, but there's a good reason for it: the researchers are trying to figure out which genes are most responsible for addiction risk in humans. These genetically-modified flies will be exposed to cocaine and given the ability to self-administer, and the researchers hope to use the model of addiction disorder in fruit flies to uncover the biological foundations behind addiction in general. Getting flies to accept cocaine, however, was no mean feat. Insects like flies are naturally averse to cocaine since it is a plant toxin, and flies detect toxins through taste receptors on their legs. Researchers had to find a way to disable those receptors so that they would accept sugarwater laced with cocaine instead of flying away. Once that hurdle was overcome, the flies took readily to the narcotic, and they reacted in much the same way humans do. As lead author Adrian Rothenfluh confirmed, "At low doses, they start running around, just like people. At very high doses, they get incapacitated, which is also true in people." While the method sounds a little odd, the research might prove invaluable to the millions of people who suffer from addiction. Cocaine is considered highly addictive, with 15 percent of those who try it becoming addicted within 10 years. If only human beings could be so naturally averse to what hurts them!

[Image description: A fruit fly with red eyes under a microscope.] Credit & copyright: Asmawati24, Wikimedia Commons. This file is made available under the Creative Commons CC0 1.0 Universal Public Domain Dedication.
 

What is that extremely angry peeping noise? If you’re in the desert, it might just be the last creature you’d expect to see: a frog. Rain frogs, so named because they’re most active when it rains, can survive in some of the harshest environments on Earth, despite their small size and the fact that they’re amphibians, which normally require constant access to water. These little frogs have also become famous online for their angry-looking faces and adorable squeaking.
 
There are more than 200 species of rain frogs, the most famous of which is the desert rain frog, native to Namibia and South Africa. Not only do these frogs live in a much different environment than most frogs, they also look very different. Rain frogs lack the powerful back legs and large feet that allow most other frogs to jump. Their legs are small and thin, while their bodies are large and round, which makes their movements slow and somewhat awkward. They’re small, with a maximum length of just six inches. Their skin, which is smooth and delicate, secretes a sticky substance that causes sand to stick all over their bodies. This sandy coating not only camouflages the frogs, it also helps protect them from the harsh sun.
 
Of course, desert rain frogs prefer not to go out in the sun at all. They're most active during periods of heavy rain, which are few and far between in the desert. When it isn’t raining, desert rain frogs prefer to stay in their burrows, which can reach as deep as eight inches under the sand. When they must leave their burrows during dry times, they prefer to do so at night. Their nocturnal lifestyle helps ensure that their smooth skin isn’t damaged by the intense desert sun. Under the cover of darkness, it’s safer for the frogs to hunt for termites, their most important food source. With their large mouths, desert rain frogs will also scoop up any other insects that wander their way, including beetles and grubs.
 
As for their famous squeaking, as cute as it may seem to us, the frog’s call is actually a war cry of sorts. The squeaking can intimidate predators like snakes or birds of prey. It can also be used to alert other rain frogs to their location. While desert rain frogs are normally solitary, during mating season, male rain frogs squeak loudly to attract females. Imagine a world where an adorable squeak was the height of masculinity.

 
[Image description: A rain frog with brown stripes standing tall with its front raised off the ground.] Credit & copyright: Marius Burger, Wikimedia Commons. This file is made available under the Creative Commons CC0 1.0 Universal Public Domain Dedication.

Hey, put that baby down! Monkeys have long had a reputation for being mischievous, but one group of capuchin monkeys living on a small Panamanian island have taken things to a new level. Researchers recently reviewed footage of capuchin monkeys on Jicarón Island taken between 2022 and 2023 and saw that several males were carrying kidnapped baby howler monkeys on their backs. No one knows why these males would snatch babies from another monkey species, as the behavior has never been observed in capuchin monkeys before. It could have been a classic case of "monkey see, monkey do”, in which one male might have started the “trend”, then other capuchins imitated him.
 
It’s telling that new behaviors are still being developed and observed amongst capuchin monkeys all the time. After all, they, like humans, are primates, a group of animals famous for their intelligence. Though capuchins are fairly small, growing to be just 22 inches long and weighing just nine pounds, they’ve got plenty of brain power. Like most primates, they learn through observation and imitation, meaning that if one monkey figures something out, others in their troop can easily pick it up too. Since troops can contain up to 35 monkeys of different ages, specialized behaviors can develop and be passed down in different groups, leading to a wide range of behaviors specific to certain areas.
 
All five species of capuchin monkeys are native to the tropical rainforests of Central and South America, and they got their name from a strange source. When European explorers first saw the monkeys, with their white faces surrounded by blonde or brown fur, they were reminded of the brown robes of Roman monks, specifically the Order of Friars Minor Capuchin, and the name stuck. Unlike monks, though, capuchin monkeys spend most of their time in the treetops, foraging through the canopy for food. Their prehensile tails help keep them grounded as they reach for fruit, or snatch lizards and other small animals from branches. As omnivores, capuchins will eat just about anything that they can fit in their mouths, though they don’t tend to scavenge on carrion the way that omnivores like bears do.
 
Like most primates, capuchins live in groups composed of a few unrelated, adult males and closely related females and their babies. At around seven years of age, male capuchins leave their birth troops to join other troops or start their own. Living in large groups makes it easy for monkeys to take turns caring for babies and keep one step ahead of predators like jaguars, large snakes, and birds of prey, since lookouts can sound an alarm if one is spotted. In an environment as dangerous as the rainforest, it pays to stick with family.

 
[Image description: A capuchin monkey reaching for food while sitting on a wooden structure.] Credit & copyright: Christophe Chauvin (Janekvorik), Wikimedia Commons. The copyright holder of this work has released it into the public domain. This applies worldwide.

Oh, how the mighty have fallen! The gas giant Jupiter is the largest planet in the solar system, but a new study published in Nature Astronomy by researchers at Caltech and the University of Michigan claims that it used to be far larger. Besides being large, Jupiter is also extremely influential. Its tremendous gravitational pull contributed greatly to the orbits of other planets, and it has even acted as a shield against asteroids and comets that might have impacted Earth. Today, Jupiter is as large as 1,000 Earths, but in its early days it was even larger. According to the researchers, Jupiter’s diameter was once twice as large as it currently is, when the solar system was just 3.8 million years old. Its magnetic field was also 50 times stronger than it is today. Researchers were able to determine the original size of the planet in its primordial form by analyzing the orbits of two of its moons, Amalthea and Thebe. These two moons have tilted orbits, and the path they take around Jupiter could have only formed when the planet was larger. Jupiter’s larger size might also mean that the planet played an even greater role in shaping the solar system as the other planets were forming or settling into their orbits. Sometimes it takes a bigger sibling to get the little ones in line.

[Image description: A starry night sky above a line of pine trees.] Credit & copyright: tommy haugsveen, Pexels
 

You might be chill, but are you capybara-level chill? Capybaras are famous for two things: being the world’s largest rodents and having one of the most relaxed dispositions in the entire animal kingdom. Their penchant for getting along with other creatures, from birds to caimens, has made them internet darlings. It’s also helped them survive for millions of years without having to change much.
 
Capybaras are the largest rodents on Earth, standing around two feet tall and four feet long while weighing up to 146 pounds. That’s awfully big considering that most rodents, like mice and squirrels, are some of the world's smallest mammals. No one knows for certain why capybaras evolved to be so huge. It could be that they grew to their current size during a time when food was particularly plentiful in their South American habitat. Or it could simply be genetic luck. Capybaras evolved from a much smaller ancestor around the same size as a guinea pig. A mutation might have caused gigantism to become more common in capybaras, making them grow large. Normally, species with such mutations have higher rates of cancer, but research has shown that capybaras also evolved cancer-resistant genes, even as their main growth hormone, called IGF-II, increased.
 
Whatever caused it, there’s no doubt that capybaras’ large size serves them well. Once capybaras are adults, few animals bother to prey on them (though some, like jaguars and caimans, still occasionally do.) Capybaras are most vulnerable to predation when they’re young, but since capybaras have up to eight babies at a time with a relatively short gestation period of five months, their populations have managed to remain stable. Capybaras are semi-aquatic, spending much of their time swimming and soaking in water. After a good swim, a capybara herd, which can consist of up to 30 capybaras, will lie along a river to dry their fur. They don’t mind much when birds land on their backs or even when predators like caimans come to rest beside them. Part of capybaras’ laid back attitude is due to their slow metabolism. They mostly eat grass, which takes time to break down. This means that they spend much of their energy on digestion and can’t expend too much on anything else. They also don’t have much reason to be wary, due to their size and the fact that their herds help keep them safe. There’s power in numbers, including the power to take it easy.

 
[Image description: Two capybaras in a zoo enclosure, one sitting and one standing.] Credit & copyright: Adrian Pingstone (Arpingstone), Wikimedia Commons. This work has been released into the public domain by its author, Arpingstone. This applies worldwide.

There's something in the air nowadays…or less of something. Researchers at Tianjin University and Peking University have found that mercury levels in the atmosphere have been dropping steadily over the past few decades, according to a study published in ACS ES&T Air. It's difficult to overstate the dangers of mercury, and much of the heavy metal in the atmosphere is anthropogenic, meaning that it originates from mad-made pollution. Whether it's elemental mercury or methylmercury, the latter of which is present in certain types of fish and shellfish, mercury has neurotoxic effects that can range from debilitating to deadly. Fortunately, anthropogenic mercury appears to be on the decline. Researchers pored over data from the past four decades and found that more of the mercury in the atmosphere appears to be from the re-emission of terrestrial mercury in the soil. In the last 20 years, atmospheric mercury levels plummeted by 70 percent, and it might be the result of the Minamata Convention on Mercury, an international treaty that regulates sources of mercury pollution. Much of this data was found by examining Androsace tapete, a plant that grows on Mount Everest and sprouts a new layer of leaves each year. The leaves from each layer contain varying levels of mercury depending on the year. Thus, researchers were able to track the declining presence of the toxin over the decades. It seems that plants are surprisingly good record-keepers.

[Image description: A white cloud against a blue sky.] Credit & copyright: Wikimedia Commons, Dinkum. This file is made available under the Creative Commons CC0 1.0 Universal Public Domain Dedication.
 

These aren’t your everyday kind of possums! While people in North and South America are used to opossums, scavengers roughly the size of cats, much smaller possums rule the roost down under. Australia is home to five species of pygmy possums, the largest of which only reaches about 12 inches in length. Recently, researchers determined that the population of mountain pygmy possums in Australia’s Kosciuszko National Park had returned to average numbers after a period of decline. The tiny marsupials’ population dropped due to a drought in 2017, then again in 2020 due to devastating bushfires. At one point, there were only around 700 of them left in the park, which spans nearly 3,000 square miles. Now, there are around 950. The secret to the possums’ success was active conservation efforts, some of which were led by local schoolchildren in towns bordering the park. The children made “Bodong biscuits” from macadamia nuts, mealworms, and oils to replace the fats that mountain pygmy possums used to get from Bodong mother larvae. The larvae suffered a population decline of their own during the 2017 drought and 2020 fires, and are also recovering.
 
Mountain pygmy possums could easily be mistaken for mice. They weigh just 1.6 ounces and only grow to around 4.3 inches long. However, while mice are rodents, mountain pygmy possums are marsupials, meaning that they carry their young in pouches until they reach adulthood. As their name suggests, mountain pygmy possums live in mountainous terrain, specifically elevated areas in Victoria and New South Wales. It’s a cold, rocky environment with harsh, windy weather. Besides moth larvae, which makes up the majority of their diets, mountain pygmy possums eat other insects as well as small berries and fruits. They’re well adapted to their mountain homes, able to climb and leap with ease while using their prehensile tails to hold on and keep from falling at great heights. Possibly their most important adaptation is their ability to hibernate when the weather gets too cold. This allows them to sleep while food is scarce, and wake up just in time to enjoy the (literal) fruits of spring. Sometimes, it’s better to just wait things out.

 
[Image description: An illustration of two pygmy possums on yellow flowers. The possums are small, gray animals with long, thin tails.] Credit & copyright: John Gould (1804–1881) and Henry Constantine Richter. The Mammals of Australia, London, Printed by Taylor and Francis, pub. by the author,1863. Biodiversity Heritage Library. This work is in the public domain in its country of origin and other countries and areas where the copyright term is the author's life plus 100 years or fewer. This work is in the public domain in the United States because it was published (or registered with the U.S. Copyright Office) before January 1, 1930.

Before gold glittered on Earth, it may have quaked in space. For years, science has posited that light elements, like hydrogen and helium, have existed on Earth since as far back as the Big Bang while heavier elements, like gold and uranium, were probably made elsewhere. That’s because a vast amount of energy is needed to create such heavy elements. These theories have been backed up by modern astronomical evidence of heavy elements being created during stellar events, such as nuclear fusion in the cores of stars. When these stars explode, they shower nearby solar systems with heavy elements. Now, researchers might have found another stellar event with the capacity to create gold: starquakes on a type of neutron star known as magnetars.
 
When stars explode, their cores can become neutron stars, the densest celestial objects in the universe. Magnetars are neutron stars with particularly strong magnetic fields. Since magnetars have fluid cores beneath their crusts, motion under the surface can cause massive starquakes, similar to earthquakes on our own planet. When this happens, magnetars can release bursts of radiation. While re-evaluating 20-year-old data from NASA and European Space Agency telescopes, researchers found evidence that these radiation bursts also cause massive explosions during which some of a magnetar’s mass is ejected into space. These explosions create the necessary conditions for the formation of heavy elements. Is it any wonder that gold shimmers like stars when that’s where it’s originally from?

[Image description: An earring in the shape of a gold star, made in the 8th-12th century.] Credit & copyright: Earring with Star and Granules The Metropolitan Museum of Art, Gift of Jeannette and Jonathan Rosen, 2001., Public Domain.
 

That’s one spiny little bugger! In some places (particularly in Europe) hedgehogs are a common sight, while in other places (like the U.S.A.) they’re considered exotic pets. Regardless of location, hedgehogs are famous for being small, cute, and, of course, spikey. An average European hedgehog has between 5,000 and 7,000 spikes covering its back and sides.
 
Hedgehogs have a wide range that includes parts of Europe, Asia, and Africa. They evolved around 15 million years ago and are still very similar to their ancient ancestors in size and appearance. They’re often mistaken for rodents, but they’re not actually members of the order Rodentia, which includes animals like mice, squirrels, and hamsters. Rather, hedgehogs belong to the order Eulipotyphla, along with animals like shrews and moles. Like their relatives, hedgehogs don’t eat seeds, grains, or fruit; they’re insectivores. Their diets mainly consist of worms, slugs, and beetles, though hedgehogs are opportunistic eaters and will even eat carrion if they happen across it.
Despite their small size and cute appearance, hedgehogs are pretty good at fending off predators thanks to their spikes. When a threat approaches, a hedgehog will roll into a prickly ball while hissing. The display is enough to drive most predators off.
 
Their natural defenses have helped hedgehogs become common in many places, including some where they really shouldn’t be. Hedgehogs were introduced to New Zealand from Europe in 1870, in an attempt to control New Zealand’s slug and snail populations. Unfortunately, hedgehogs are now invasive pests in the island nation, as they gobble up native wildlife and have no natural predators to control their population.
 
African pygmy hedgehogs are particularly popular as pets worldwide, as they typically do well in captivity and can even bond with their owners to a degree. They do have some special needs though. Not only do hedgehog owners need to have strong enough stomachs to feed their pets mealworms and other insects, but African pygmy hedgehogs also require heating lamps. If their body temperature slips below 68 degrees Fahrenheit, they can enter a hibernation-like state called torpor, which can be deadly. When it comes to keeping these prickly pals, not everyone can stand the heat.

 
[Image description: A brown hedgehog walking in green grass.] Credit & copyright: George Chernilevsky, Wikimedia Commons. The copyright holder of this work has released it into the public domain. This applies worldwide.

This week, as the weather continues to warm, we're looking back on some of our favorite springtime curios from years past.
 

Spring is arriving earlier than ever according to the National Park Service (NPS). As pleasant as it sounds, this has broad ramifications—such as the devastating floods in the Midwest this week. NPS ecologists published a study in 2016 that compared long-term shifts in the "first leaf" and first bloom dates of national parks. Of the 276 parks in the study, 75 percent are experiencing earlier and earlier first budding and blooming dates (the locations shown above in green). For example, in Washington's Olympic National Park, leaves are emerging 23 days sooner than they did 100 years ago. The Grand Canyon and the Appalachians are budding earlier as well. But areas in grey, such as the south, have been experiencing delayed signs of spring. Why is this such a big deal? For starters, "false springs" are partially responsible for premature blooming. Waves of unseasonable warmth cause plants to sprout in winter. The plants die when the cold resumes. Meaning that the migratory birds, pollinators, and hibernating mammals who rely on those plants find themselves in dire straits. Also, premature thaws of snowpacks lead to flooding which is not only dangerous but means the water can't be captured properly in reservoirs. So before you get too hopeful that spring will spring early… it might be better to wish for a few more weeks of winter.
 

Image credit & copyright: Jebulon, Wikimedia Commons. This file is made available under the Creative Commons CC0 1.0 Universal Public Domain Dedication.
 

This week, as the weather continues to warm, we're looking back on some of our favorite springtime curios from years past.
 
These cleaning fish are making a mess in Texas! 406 invasive suckermouth armored catfish were removed from the San Marcos River recently by researchers from Texas A&M and Texas State universities. Better known as plecostomus or plecos, the fish are native to parts of Central and South America but were introduced to Texan waters mainly by people who dumped them from their aquariums. In some bodies of water, they were also introduced intentionally, to control algae. The fish are popular to keep because they eat the algae growing inside tanks, but their productivity can lead to headaches for their owners down the line, as plecos can grow up to three feet long from all that eating.
 
Once they’re in the wild, it’s a disaster for native wildlife. As their name implies, their thick, armored skin leaves them with few natural predators, and according to the Texas Invasive Species Institute, they reproduce quickly and are even capable of surviving out of water for 20 hours. Plecos have also been found to tolerate brackish waters, or water that has some salt and freshwater content, further increasing the range of their threat. Lastly, they tend to dig burrows along river banks, destabilizing them and increasing erosion. The Texas Parks and Wildlife Department (TPWD) has been raising awareness on the issue for years and instructs people who catch the fish to not release them back into the water. When a highschooler caught a record-breaking suckermouth back in 2011, Dr. Gary Garrett—the Director of Watershed Conservation for the TPWD at the time—stated, “These fish are the most destructive exotic fish in Texas. They take over important habitats such as springs, push out and replace native species, including listed species and species of conservation concern, decimate native vegetation and undermine and destabilize banks. In no way do they have any redeeming qualities.” While scientists have tagged and released the invasive fish in the past to track their population, the 406 caught recently will not be so lucky, as the TPWD announced that the invaders will be euthanized humanely using a fish anesthetic and their remains will be used for further research. Seriously, don’t mess with Texas.

 
[Image description: A plecostomus fish in an aquarium.] Credit & copyright: Karelj, Wikimedia Commons.

Everyone loves a good tutorial video…even robots. Despite humanity’s recent breakthroughs in AI technology, there still aren’t many robots around. That’s because robots have physical bodies, which means that they have to navigate the physical world…which means that they have to be able to learn and adapt. That’s a tall order for a non-living entity with no brain. Typically, robots have to be programmed with very specific instructions, and then re-programmed with new information whenever they inevitably encounter real-world obstacles. Now, though, researchers at Cornell University in New York have developed an AI-powered framework that allows robots to learn new things simply by watching a video. It’s called RHyME (Retrieval for Hybrid Imitation under Mismatched Execution), and it works by equipping robots with a “memory bank” of moving images that they can access when they encounter tasks they don’t understand. While videos of humans performing various tasks have been used to train robots before, the method was never completely successful because humans don’t move like robots, and their movements would therefore confuse their robotic pupils. This is the problem that RHyME set out to fix. When a RHyME-equipped robot watches how-to videos of humans performing tasks, it retains all the images within a memory bank. After watching multiple videos, the robot has a lot of stored information to draw upon, and it can piece together new actions using its memory for “inspiration.” For example, if a robot has seen a video of a person opening a book, it can not only open a book itself, but also draw on other videos it might have seen of humans grasping, lifting, and setting down objects. This would allow it to grab, lift, and set down the book in addition to opening it, even if it hadn’t seen a human perform those exact actions with a book. RHyME could open the door to more adaptive robotic learning, allowing robots to safely perform tasks in all sorts of new environments. Futuristic robotic butlers, here we come!

[Image description: A digital illustration of a robotic hand reaching toward geometric grid-like shapes.] Credit & copyright: Tara Winstead, Pexels
 

Hey there, that’s no bear! Red pandas might not be closely related to actual pandas, but they do still resemble their closest living relatives: racoons. With their reddish fur, “masked” faces and long, ringed tails, red pandas are a striking sight. No wonder they’re cultural icons in Japan, and have been the subject of movies, books, and cartoons in recent years. Beloved as they are, though, red pandas are also endangered, with less than 10,000 living in the wild.
 
Red pandas are unique in ways that have nothing to do with their good looks. They’re the only living members of the family Ailuridae, which falls within the superfamily Musteloidea. Other members of this superfamily include racoons, skunks, and weasels. Like these animals, red pandas are officially considered carnivores because of certain physical characteristics, like their teeth and skull shape. However, unlike most other members of Musteloidea, red pandas almost exclusively eat vegetation: specifically bamboo. In fact, it makes up around 95 percent of their diet. This is the real reason that they share their name with giant pandas, one of the only other animals on Earth that survives on almost nothing but bamboo. Compared to giant pandas, though, red pandas are quite small. They’re only about the size of a domestic cat, reaching lengths of around 43 inches (including their tails) and weighing between eight and 17 pounds.
 
In their natural habitat of high-altitude, mountainous Asian forests, red pandas spend most of their lives in the treetops. They are excellent climbers, with special wrist bones that act as pseudo-thumbs, allowing them to grip branches. Like squirrels, red pandas use their long tails for balance. They lead solitary lives until mating season, which takes place from January to March. Adult red pandas split up after mating, and females give birth in summer to one to four cubs, which will stay with her for around a year.
 
Unfortunately, habitat destruction has caused red panda birth rates to plummet, and they’ve been considered endangered since 2015. Because red pandas are such popular cultural icons, they’re also targeted by the illegal pet trade. Conservation organizations like the Red Panda Network are working in countries like Nepal and Bhutan to increase the red panda population, but stricter protections for red pandas’ habitat will be needed to make any lasting progress. Hopefully their striking looks can strike a chord with government officials.

 
[Image description: A red panda surrounded by snow, walking with one paw raised.] Credit & copyright: Wikimedia Commons, Dave Pape. This work has been released into the public domain by its author, Davepape. This applies worldwide.

Your memories are your own business…for now. The ability to read minds and delete memories has always been relegated to the world of science fiction, but as we learn more about how memories are formed, we’re also learning how they might be strengthened, weakened, or even erased. Until the mid-20th century, little was known about how memories were actually formed. Then, in the 1940s and 50s, American-Canadian neurosurgeon Wilder Penfield performed a series of experiments in which he stimulated patients’ brains with electrical currents while they were conscious. He discovered that memories could be evoked by targeting different parts of the cortex with electricity. This research helped lead to the discovery that memories are formed via connections between neurons. These connections are created when a person has a memorable experience, and can be strengthened naturally by repeating similar experiences or by talking out loud about past experiences. They can also be strengthened artificially, as discovered by neuroscientist Robert Hampson, of North Carolina’s Wake Forest University School of Medicine. Using electricity, his team found a way to replicate neuron signals associated with specific images in an image-based memory test. When volunteers received electrical stimulation to their brains that mimicked those signals, their performance on the test improved by 35 to 40 percent. Of course, it stands to reason that if certain neural pathways weaken over time, then memories will also weaken, or fade away completely—and if memories can be artificially strengthened, they might be able to be artificially weakened too. The simplest way to do this might be to interfere with the memory-making process as it’s happening. Research has shown that neural connections are facilitated by molecules in the brain. Blocking these molecules during memory formation could cause the memory to go “unrecorded.” It’s possible that, one day, selectively removing molecules in certain areas could allow specific memories to be deleted…but right now, that’s still a long way off. While memory-strengthening treatments could one day lead to better treatments for dementia and Alzheimer's, memory-weakening technology could help those with traumatic memories or PTSD. Surely everyone has a few embarrassing teenage memories that they wouldn't mind losing too.

[Image description: A computer illustration of a gray brain against a black background.] Credit & copyright: KATRIN BOLOVTSOVA, Pexels
 

No more jumping through hoops for these pachyderms. Washington state recently passed a bill banning the use of exotic animals in traveling shows, including circuses. Along with lions, tigers, monkeys, and bears, elephants are expected to benefit greatly from the legislation. Because they’re smaller and more docile than their African cousins, Asian elephants have long been used (and, unfortunately, often abused) in European and American circuses. In their native habitat, however, Asian elephants have traditionally been revered by people and are even symbols of royalty in some countries. Still, they’re extremely endangered in the wild, with only around 30,000 to 50,000 wild individuals left.
 
Asian elephants are native to South and Southeast Asia, where they're the largest mammals on the continent. They usually stand between 6 and 12 feet tall, and males can weigh up to 13,000 pounds. Asian elephants are versatile, able to live in dense tropical forests or on open grasslands. For females, survival depends on cooperation with herd members. Females and young males live in herds of around seven individuals, with the oldest female acting as the leader, or matriarch. The matriarch is responsible for leading the herd to areas with enough food to sustain them. She also leads them on their yearly migration during the dry season, using her age and experience to ensure that they find water. Herd living allows female Asian elephants to protect themselves and their calves from tigers, their only wild predators. As for male Asian elephants, they leave their herds when they reach around eight years of age, and live mostly solitary lives, only interacting with other elephants during mating season, which coincides with the rainy season from around June to October.
 
Asian elephants might be smaller than African elephants, but both species share a common ancestor, though that ancestor didn’t look much like either modern species. Moeritherium lived in northern Africa around 37 to 50 million years ago, and looked more like a pig, hippo, or tapir than an elephant. Yet, all species in the family Elephantidae, including the extinct wooly mammoth, are distantly related to it. When some elephant ancestors made their way to Asia around six million years ago, Asian and African elephants officially diverged, and began to become their own species. They still have plenty in common, though, including their endangered status. Humans are the greatest threat facing both species. Habitat loss and poaching could drive Asian elephants to extinction in just a few years if nothing is done. Size just isn’t enough to protect against people.

 
[Image description: A close-up photo of a male Asian elephant with its mouth open.] Credit & copyright: LadyofHats, Wikimedia Commons. The copyright holder of this work, has released it into the public domain. This applies worldwide.

How big can something be before it’s no longer useful? That’s the question that many in the tech industry are asking in reference to computer chips. As modern computers demand more and more processing power, standard silicon, closed-circuit chips are having to get bigger and bigger to handle the extra workload. The fear is that, at some point, chips will grow too big and bulky for modern electronics, which tend to be small, lightweight, and portable. Enter the California tech firm, Lightmatter. Their new, photonic computer chips, which were described in two papers in the scientific journal Nature, use not just electricity, but also light to process information. Because the chips utilize photons rather than electrons, they are able to process more, and at much faster speeds, than traditional chips, while remaining fairly small. Studies have shown that the chips are strong enough to power several modern AI systems, which require an immense amount of processing strength. In fact, the chips are capable of performing 65.5 trillion adaptive block floating-point 16-bit (ABFP) operations per second. If that's not enough, photonic chips also use far less energy than normal electron-based ones, consuming just 78 watts of electrical power and 1.6 watts of optical power. That’s a breakthrough in the realm of photonic processing, but only time will tell if photonic chips turn out to be the future of computing. Other technologies, like quantum computing and carbon-nanotube chips, are also being investigated as solutions to our modern processing problems. Phones and laptops might get even lighter in the future, especially if they’re running on light!
 

[Image description: A burst of light with white rays.] Credit & copyright: Limonc, Wikimedia Commons. The copyright holder of this work has released it into the public domain. This applies worldwide.
 

Hold onto your iron throne, dire wolves are back! For the first time in history, an extinct species has been revived…sort of. Dire wolves were large canids that went extinct around 13,000 years ago. Now, an American biotech company called Colossal Biosciences is claiming to have brought the species back from extinction via three dire wolf cubs, fittingly named Romulus, Remes, and Khaleesi. Some experts, however, disagree on whether these pups are truly dire wolves. Others are taking the time to remind the public that, despite their appearance, dire wolves weren’t actually wolves at all.
 
Dire wolves are often portrayed as giants, larger than any living wolf species, but that’s not particularly accurate. Dire wolves were only slightly larger than modern gray wolves: the former grew to lengths of around six feet and weighed around 150 pounds, while the latter is just a little smaller, reaching similar lengths and weighing around 110 pounds. Dire wolves were native to the Americas, and like modern wolves they hunted in packs, preying on large animals like bison and camels, though their diets also included extinct megafauna like giant ground sloths and mastodons.
 
Despite their similarity to extant wolves, recent genetic discoveries revealed that dire wolves weren’t very closely related to them. In fact, dire wolves’ lineage diverged from that of modern canines like coyotes, wolves, and dogs almost 6 million years ago. They ended up looking and behaving like modern wolves through a process called convergent evolution, in which two or more species evolve similar traits in order to fill a certain ecological niche—in this case, the role of pack-hunting predator.
 
As for the recently “de-extincted” dire wolves, there’s no doubt that there are no other canines like them alive today. Whether that actually makes them true dire wolves is a topic of some debate among experts. The pups weren’t, after all, cloned from a full, intact genetic sample from an extinct dire wolf. Instead, damaged and fragmented dire wolf DNA was extracted from fossils and then edited into the DNA of a modern gray wolf. This has caused some biologists to contend that the pups are modified gray wolves with some dire wolf traits. Regardless, such “de-extinction” technology could one day make it possible to see all sorts of long-gone animals (or at least something close to them) again. Hopefully it's not a Jurassic Park situation.

 
[Image description: A photo of a gray wolf lying in the grass.] Credit & copyright: USFWS National Digital Library, Hollingsworth, John and Karen, USFWS. Public Domain.